Shulou(Shulou.com)06/02 Report--

Although the Internet has penetrated into all aspects of our lives, do you know the origin and development of the Internet? Do you know what wonderful moments there are in the history of the Internet? And this article will bring you a detailed explanation of these contents.

Although people today have become accustomed to the existence of the Internet, but to carefully ask the origin of the Internet, most people will probably say that you are sick.

This is a good thing, because when people get used to the existence of something, it proves how successful it is. As the aboriginal people of the Internet, the Internet is as indispensable as water, electricity and food.

The History of the Internet-- it begins with the Cold War

On January 5, 1968, reformist leader Dubcek became the first secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, and then launched a series of political liberalization reforms: the implementation of a diversified political system, the abolition of media censorship, the opening up of freedom of speech and freedom of association.

Dubcek's series of reform measures are well received by the people of Czechoslovakia, known as the Prague Spring. However, in the face of this series of political liberalization reforms, the Soviet Union was deeply disturbed and finally invaded Czechoslovakia on August 20, resulting in the failure of the country's reforms.

Only six hours after the attack began, the Soviets took control of the Czech Republic. Hundreds of thousands of Czech troops were all disarmed, and the US-led NATO did not have time to make any response. It should be emphasized that the Czech Army ranked seventh in the world before World War II, when it took Hitler Germany 18 hours to invade Prague. The bold and rapid assault of the Soviet army, the electronic countermeasures before the war, strategic deception, and the efficient operation of the command and communication system fully reflected the superiority of the Warsaw Pact countries in the C4I system (command, control, communication, computer) in the 1970s, which made the United States feel deeply worried.

During the Cold War in the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet Union steadily suppressed the United States. Despite nuclear deterrence, the advanced C4I system shown by the Soviet Union in its military activities in Prague Spring has the ability to strike with surgical precision, which makes Americans worry that if there is only one centralized military command center, in case it is destroyed by the Soviet Union, then the national military command will be paralyzed, then nuclear deterrence will be out of the question.

Therefore, it is necessary to design a decentralized command system, which is composed of scattered command points. When some command points are destroyed, other points can still work normally, and these scattered points can be connected through some form of communication network.

In late 1968, the US Department of Defense quickly approved a costly project-the formation of a computer network, ARPANET (abbreviation Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, also known as "Appa"). The computer network, called Apa, received an initial reserve of US $5.2 million and a total project budget of US $200m, equivalent to three times China's foreign exchange reserves at that time.

In 1969, the "Arpa" network already had four initial nodes in the United States, which were connected to each other through packet switching technology.

In 1973, Apa made use of satellite technology to connect Britain and Norway across the Atlantic for the first time.

In 1975, the "Arpa" network was taken over by the Communications Office of the US Department of Defense. After years of development, the "Arpa" network has gradually thrived, resulting in a large number of local networks, such as computer science research network (Computer Science Research Network,CSNET), Canadian network (Canadian Network CDnet), time-dependent network (Because It's Time Network, BITNET) and so on.

In 1983, the "Apa" network, which was initially positioned for military purposes, was divided into two parts, one is still serving the military and national defense (MILNET), the other is open to private commercial use, and then the "Appa" network used for civilian purposes was renamed to the Internet.

The next Bill Gates

Yang Zhiyuan should still remember that Yahoo, which he and Ferro founded in April 1994, personally ignited the Internet era.

I believe Yang Zhiyuan will not forget that a generation of Internet giants officially came to an end when US telecom giant Verizon bought Yahoo for $4.8 billion in July 2016.

As a representative company of the Internet 1.0 era, Yahoo brings people far more than a commercial company, but a world of new ideas and new rules. But now it is still a Netscape away from Yang Zhiyuan and his Yahoo standing in the middle of the stage.

Since 1983, Apa has split into a military network and the Internet. After a few years, more and more hosts are connected to the Internet, the Internet is no longer limited to military and education, more and more people use Internet as a means of communication and communication. With so many hosts and sites, how can access be more convenient? The problem was solved quickly. In 1989, the genius Tim Berners Lee (the father of the Internet) put forward the idea of WWW ("World Wide Web" World wide Web). WWW allows Web clients (that is, browsers) to access pages on server sites, while the entire World wide Web is an aggregation of many interlinked sites that can access each other through web addresses. At this point, the door of the Internet is officially open.

Although Tim Berners-Lee made the world's first web browser in the lab as early as 1990, it was four years later that the browser really blossomed. First standing in the middle of the stage are Anderson and his Netscape company. Yang Zhiyuan and his Yahoo will have to sit for a while. In 1994, Netscape released the beta version of the Netscape browser, which was a quick success, and Netscape's revenue rose 100% every quarter in 1995.

The huge and rapid success heated up Netscape's imagination, and Netscape soon began to try to build some browser-based application software platforms. This makes Microsoft, which sells computer operating systems and builds software application ecology based on operating systems, feel a great threat.

Anderson-known in the 1990s as "the next Bill Gates"-boasted that Microsoft's Windows operating system could only act as a bunch of poorly designed device drivers in front of Netscape.

Financial institution Goldman Sachs downgraded Microsoft's shares because of concerns about the impact of the Internet on software manufacturing.

Bill Gates, the richest man in the world, who also reached the peak of his life in 1995, quickly organized a team to develop Microsoft's own IE browser and personally fought against Anderson.

Netscape's business model for its browsers is to sell directly, which is consistent with the traditional software industry's model of selling software licenses. Anderson gave the product the slogan "trial is free, charge for use", distributed browsers to students and educators for free, and set a price of $39 for other users. Soon IE was updated to version 3.0, and the performance and ease of use were greatly improved, when Bill Gates decided to make a big move, and Microsoft decided to give out the IE browser for free and bundle it on all computers running Windows. Any PC manufacturer that does not install the IE browser on the machine and sets it as the default browser will be terminated from licensing the Windows system.

The importance of the operating system to the computer is self-evident. Bill Gates' banditry has made Netscape see who the real uncle is. Soon Netscape's market share declined, fell quickly, and withdrew from the center of the Internet stage. Although years later, the US federal court finally imposed a penalty on Microsoft's monopoly behavior, but it was too late and Netscape no longer existed.

The three princes would like to see each other.

It wasn't until 1998 that Netscape made its browsers available for free. Bill Gates, the richest man in the world who defeated Netscape with free products and bundled installation, sat safely on the throne, thinking that he could finally be quiet for a while. Yang Zhiyuan, who never thought that Yang Zhiyuan from China (Taiwan) was secretly developing, was ready to shout, "the prince will be at peace with each other."

From 1994 to 1998, when Microsoft and Netscape fought desperately, they were fighting for access to the Internet, but someone found another way to access the Internet. After years of development, there have been many sites on the Internet, but it is always a difficult problem for people to find these sites. At that time, people could only access them by memorizing a long list of URL links and entering them into the browser manually. Efficiency and convenience are not good. Two graduates from Stanford University, Yang Zhiyuan and David. Ferro founded the Yahoo website in 1995, the main function of which is to establish a simple classification and directory of sites on the Internet, which is easy for users to browse and use. The orderly navigation of the web address made Yahoo quickly become the favorite of Internet users and the hottest website at that time, and surfing the Internet was equivalent to being on Yahoo.

In 1997, Yahoo had more than 90 million visitors a day, more than all its competitors combined. At this time, Microsoft and Netscape are still fighting, and Yahoo is thriving. Then Yahoo is no longer satisfied with making a simple classification and catalogue, and gradually expands its business plate, making Yahoo an integrated Internet resource integration platform with information, email, search, video, advertising and everything. It covers all aspects of the Internet and has become the largest Internet portal in the world. In the decade from 1996 to 2006, Yahoo's turnover increased 260 times. It has always been the number one company on the Internet in the world, and has suppressed the MSN of AOL and Microsoft for a long time. Among the top 20 global Internet companies in 2006, Yahoo, Yahoo Japan and Yahoo China were No. 1, 7 and 14, respectively.

However, Yahoo's greatest contribution to the Internet world is not the establishment of a commercially successful company, nor the creation of portals, a new way to obtain Internet information, but a precedent for free access to content and services on the Internet. this has greatly promoted the process of internetworking in the world.

Before the Internet, a large number of sites were for military and educational purposes, and people did not know how to commercialize the Internet. Even as the browser that is the gateway to the Internet, Netscape, the leader, is just beginning to sell its browser products as a piece of software. Even Microsoft, in the beginning, did not want to explore the commercialization of the Internet, but competed desperately with Netscape to prevent Netscape from engaging in software application ecology. So as soon as Microsoft won the browser competition, it actually disbanded the IE team because its market share was high enough, and because IE bundled Windows for free, IE browsers could not see the potential for cash. To this end, Microsoft missed the follow-up broad era of the Internet and mobile Internet.

Yahoo creates a business model exclusive to the Internet, where users can enjoy content and services for free, and then make a profit by charging companies advertising fees to subsidize the operating costs of the platform. This creation has far-reaching implications for the follow-up Internet. Top of the Wave has the following comments on Yahoo and Jerry Yang:

A hundred years from now, if people remember only the two people who made the biggest contributions to the Internet, they are likely to be Jerry Yang and David Filo, rather than the more famous Internet entrepreneurs of today, Page, Brin or Zuckerberg.

Their contribution to the world goes far beyond creating Yahoo, the world's largest Internet portal, and, more importantly, laying down the rules of the game that the Internet industry has followed all over the world-- open, free and profitable. and invented a new business model that allows users and customers to be different from each other.

It is because of their contribution that we are able to get all kinds of information free of charge from the Internet, transmit and share information through the Internet, and our lives can be changed. Yahoo may cease to exist in a hundred years, but people will compare them to Edison, Bell and Ford.

In 2000, Yahoo's market capitalization reached an all-time high of $128 billion. In 2016, Yahoo sold itself to US telecom giant Verizon for $4.8 billion. For 16 years, in the middle of the Internet stage, Jobs held Apple, Page, Google and Zuckerberg, anxiously waiting for the performance. In the far east, the sound of jingling occurs one after another, and soon they will build a new stage.

The History of the Internet-- the Manhattan Project, Aristotle and the original bullet

Who would have thought that the computer, the core of the third Industrial Revolution, came from the great Manhattan Project? The idea that laid the foundation for computers came from 2000 years ago.

One Manhattan Project

The principle of nuclear fission was discovered in experiments by German scientist Hahn on Christmas Eve 1938, a year before the official outbreak of World War II. The German military has an extraordinary understanding of the significance of the discovery of nuclear fission. In 1939, World War II officially broke out, and in that year, Nazi Germany officially launched the "uranium program", which was the key to the manufacture of the original bomb. At that time, Einstein and Heisenberg, also masters of quantum mechanics, led two groups of scientists who had mastered the technology of nuclear fission.

In 1941, Heisenberg was appointed leader of the development of the atomic bomb in Germany, which worried Einstein, who had already left Germany for the United States, although Heisenberg was actually secretly rebelling against the Nazis and deliberately deceiving the German government. delayed Germany's progress in developing an atomic bomb.

At the end of 41, when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, angry Americans thought that I could only sneak around, but now they simply rolled up their sleeves and worked hard, so the United States officially declared war on the Nazis. Einstein had already gone to the United States because he hated Nazi Germany, and he feared that the Nazis would develop the atomic bomb first, so that the world would be plunged into an incalculable havoc. So he wrote a letter to US President Roosevelt describing the great destructive power of the atomic bomb and its ability to greatly influence the course of the war, calling on the United States to build the atomic bomb before Nazi Germany.

In June 1942, Roosevelt formally approved the implementation of the Manhattan Project in the White House office and gave it "special priority over all actions." the Manhattan Project took three years, cost more than 500,000 people and cost as much as $2.5 billion, equivalent to $500 billion at gold prices. Trump's budget for building a wall on the U.S.-Mexico border today is $25 billion, and you can imagine how much resources have been invested in the Manhattan Project. To add that more than 150000 people work in the Manhattan Project District, only 12 of them are aware of the overall plan, which shows the degree of secrecy and importance of the purpose.

When John Mohinley designed and built the first electronic computer, ENIAC, in 1942, it must have been hard to foresee that computers would become indispensable to everyone in the future. As part of the Manhattan Project, computers are officially in the middle of the stage. At that time, the computer ENIAC, the size of a room, could do "only" 5000 calculations per second. It was originally intended to be used to calculate the launch orbit of an atomic bomb in World War II. To put it simply, at the beginning, computers were not for ordinary people to surf the Internet, play games or chat, but to launch atomic bombs. But in any case, the computer ENIAC saves a lot of manual computing costs, so it has become the darling of commercial companies that also have a large number of computing needs.

II Aristotle

More than 2000 years ago, when Aristotle deduced the classical logical syllogism, the weather in Athens must have been excellent. Aristotle's famous syllogism of logic:

All men are doomed; Socrates is human; Socrates is mortal.

Who would have thought that this seemingly simple logical syllogism laid the foundation for the third industrial revolution 2000 years later.

George Bull, a great mathematician, translated logic into mathematical language with his worship of Aristotle, thus laying the foundation for mathematical logic. For example, "everyone is bound to die", translated into a mathematical language is x = x * y, which can be interpreted as "everything in the x set is in the y set". Since then, computers and computer languages have been carried forward based on mathematical logic.

In 1942, John Mohili successfully designed the computer ENIAC based on the mathematical logic from Aristotle, but he had some defects and did not put forward the complete design scheme of the computer. Feng Neumann, a mathematician who also participated in the Manhattan Project, visited the ENIAC computer, summed up the experiences and lessons of his predecessors in designing computers, and put forward the "three laws" in the computer field:

The binary system represents instructions and data; the program is stored and runs automatically; it is composed of controller, arithmetic unit, memory, input and output.

Von Neumann successfully designed the EDVAC computer according to this. Later, with the progress of the times, transistor computers, integrated circuit computers and even quantum computers were born. But no matter how complex the computer structure is, how huge the storage capacity is, and how fast the computing power is, they are still von Neumann computers in essence.

Although computers come from the military at the beginning, with the development of market economy and the acceleration of globalization, more and more commercial companies have a large number of computing needs. The demand for commercial computers is strong enough to give birth to monopolistic giants like IBM.

IBM, which was born in 1911, started with mechanical watchmaking in its early days, but with a keen market foresight, it seized the historical opportunity of the replacement of the mechanical age and the electronic age of World War II and became a pioneer in leading electronic technology. In 1952, IBM launched the first large computer based on vacuum tubes. From then on, computers were no longer limited to laboratories, and the business world began to enjoy the most valuable achievements of the third Industrial Revolution.

In 1964, IBM invested a research and development team of 4000 people and US $5 billion in the development of the Smax 360 mainframe, a project equivalent to 75 times China's foreign exchange reserves at that time. It can be seen that the cost of making a computer and operating system is very huge, and we still have a long way to go in China.

After the launch of the Shop 360 mainframe, it quickly monopolized the mainframe market and successfully dominated the commercial computer market of the US government and large enterprises. For a long time since then, IBM has been firmly in control of the computer business of the government, large companies and banks, with frighteningly high revenues and profits. IBM's revenue reached $7.5 billion in 1970, which is equivalent to about $293 billion in gold prices today, roughly equal to the annual revenues of today's top companies Apple and Google combined. Such a high profit was enough to keep IBM on the throne for 13 years until the riffraff reached the center of the stage for the first time.

Triatomic bomb

In April 1945, Berlin, the capital of Nazi Germany, was captured and Hitler committed suicide. Fortunately, he did not see the shadow of the atomic bomb to his death. Japan was defeated, but it refused to surrender, still resisting frantically with the United States on every inch of every small island in the Pacific Ocean, causing heavy casualties to the United States. Taken together, the Americans may sacrifice more than 1 million of their soldiers in the forcible occupation of Japan. If you don't want to kill me, you can't do this thing at a loss. Instead, you might as well take a walk with the results of the "Manhattan Project."

On August 6 and 9, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, which claimed a total of 290000 Japanese lives. Japan quickly surrendered unconditionally. From the perspective of weapons of war, the Manhattan Project is undoubtedly successful, but from a humanitarian point of view, the existence of atomic bombs is not a good thing.

In 1955, Einstein, who spent the rest of his life regretting the suggestion that the US government build an atomic bomb, was unwilling to close his eyes forever. A few months after the atomic bomb exploded, Einstein and more than 20 Nobel laureates signed an agreement on the nuclear bomb, in which they hope to work together in the future to eliminate the great trauma that the nuclear bomb has inflicted on the world. However, the huge strategic value of the atomic bomb makes governments flock to it, and once the devil's flame burns, it is difficult to extinguish it. Presumably Einstein would not have imagined that the computer, a by-product of the Manhattan project he led, would become the core of the world's progress in the near future. Perhaps it was fate, also in 1955, when Jobs was born. After laying the groundwork so much in front of me, I finally got this riffraff standing in the middle of the Internet stage.

Internet History-- Sugar Water and Apple

Do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life, or do you want to change the world with us?

A story about sugar water

The world's first bottle of Coca-Cola was born in the United States in 1886 and sold an average of only 9 cups a day in its first year, but because of its refreshing, calming and headache-relieving properties, coupled with its unparalleled marketing and clinging to the thighs of the US government, Coca-Cola gradually conquered hundreds of millions of consumers around the world with irresistible charm and became the "king of beverages (sugar water) in the world".

Twelve years later, in 1898, Pepsi was also born in the United States, from the date of its birth, it is Coca-Cola's fateful rival. At that time, Coca-Cola sales had reached 1 million gallons a year, since then, Coca-Cola and Pepsi started the "hundred years' War." For more than half a century since then, Coca-Cola has been in a state of repression, never even mentioning Pepsi's name directly, but always referring to Pepsi as "imitator" and "enemy".

John Sculley, who became the head of Pepsi in 1970, was adept at marketing, developing and promoting the "The Pepsi Challenge" program, tasting experiments + focusing on the choices of the younger generation, and highly successful marketing, which enabled Pepsi to gain significant market share from Coca-Cola, closing the gap with Coca-Cola from 1:5 to 2 ∶ 3. Even in 1979, Pepsi outsold Coca-Cola in supermarkets. Scully's more than ten years at Pepsi from 1970 to 1983 can be said to be quite successful. Even during his subsequent decade at Apple, he was still very successful in terms of revenue figures, but he was not highly regarded because he drove away Steve Jobs, the founder and soul of Apple.

Since IBM launched the mainframe to the business world in 1964, more than a decade has passed, the computer market has not changed much. Mainframe enterprises such as IBM and Hewlett-Packard stick to the high profits of the government and enterprise computing market, but do not see that the booming market and ordinary consumers have become more and more eager for computing power. For a long time, computers have always been the exclusive product of the government and large enterprises, and their high prices deter small and medium-sized enterprises and individual consumers. Wozniak, who later became Apple's co-founder, initially wanted to contribute his personal computer (later Apple I and Apple II) to HP, but HP felt it was an amateur toy that could not be compared with the company's expensive, high-end mainframe computer business. This gave the later Apple the opportunity of birth and growth.

II. Apple II and the ousted founder

Apple was born in April 1976, with hippie Steve Jobs, Hewlett-Packard engineer Steve Wozniak and Ron Wayne, once in the tiger business, the first three partners. Ron Wayne asked to withdraw from the stock 11 days later, getting back his 10% stake of $800. today, 40 years later, 10% of Apple's market capitalization is about $60 billion.

After experiencing the Apple I, which is really like a toy, Apple quickly launched the Apple II, which quickly gained popularity in the market and became the first PC to be truly commercially successful. Over the next decade, the Apple II became Apple's important cash flow (almost the only), selling nearly 6 million units, leading to Apple's IPO and stock rally in 1980 and becoming a symbol of that era. In the movie Forrest Gump, they all tease about buying Apple stock, so they don't have to worry about money anymore.

Apple II's success made other companies see business opportunities and awakened backward giants in time. IBM also launched a personal computer (pictured below) in 1981, which entered the market strongly and surpassed Apple in sales within a year.

Although Apple II makes a lot of money, in Jobs' mind, this is not the computer he wants. Apple II's operating system is BASIC and does not have a graphical interface.

The computer operating system that Jobs saw at Xerox Labs many years ago shocked him that it was the personal computer that consumers wanted. Jobs wanted to create a computer that anyone could use, a graphical interface that anyone could understand, so he quickly started a new project-Macintosh.

At this point, Jobs needs to find someone who can replace him as Apple's CEO, so that he can devote himself to the development of Macintosh. John Scully, who became famous in World War I in the 1970s and turned Pepsi's disadvantage, was the one chosen.

In 1983, Jobs wanted John Scully, PepsiCo CEO, to join Apple by saying, "do you want to sell sugar water for life, or do you want to change the world with us?" Then Scully decided to join Apple. During his 10 years in office, Apple's sales have risen from $800m to $8 billion, but instead of working on any product line, he set out to find ways to make more money on Apple II, which has been on the market for six years.

From a business profit point of view, it was very successful, but it was so focused on profitability that the company lost its innovation and soul after Jobs was ousted.

The thing is, after the success of Apple II, Jobs immediately devoted himself to the development of Macintosh and wanted to continue the success. Macintosh was officially released in 1985, but sales did not meet expectations, and Jobs was not satisfied with the status quo, so he wanted to transfer some of Apple II's marketing spending to Macintosh, and planned to reduce the price of Macintosh by $500. But Scully disagreed, saying it could lead the company to failure. So they prepared separate documents to explain to the board that in the end the board sided with Scully and Jobs was relieved of control of the Macintosh department. It wasn't long before Jobs left the Apple company he founded.

Three "overcoming robberies"

Twelve years later, in 1997, the King of Jobs returned to take the helm of Apple after the completion of the robbery.

During this period, he founded NeXT and bought Pixar (Pixar), which was not very successful at first, but later proved to be very successful and excellent projects. In 1995, Toy Story, co-produced by Pixar and Disney, was released and quickly swept the world. it became the top box office at the global box office with $350 million at the global box office and ushered in a new era of animated films. A week after the release of Toy Story, Pixar went public, earning Jobs a return of $1 billion, five times higher than when Apple went public. The investment in NeXT has become a core part of Apple's new operating system after its return to Apple.

These 12 years of "plunder" was very important to Jobs personally, and he began to become a better corporate manager. When he started negotiations with Disney on Toy Story, he was treated unreasonably at first, and Disney even said to Jobs, "if that's what you want, we don't have to talk about it. You can go now." But Jobs, who had always been strong before, just smiled and stayed, which eventually contributed to Pixar's success before fighting for his rights.

In 2001, Apple released the iPod player, and in less than two years, sales exceeded $1 billion, accounting for 15% of the company's turnover, which was Jobs' first splendor after returning to Apple. He successfully upended the music player market.

In 2007, Apple launched the iPhone, which completely upended the mobile phone industry and ushered in the era of the mobile Internet.

In 2008, Apple released APP Store, which allows developers to develop applications based on Apple devices, which greatly enriches the ease of use and playability of mobile phones, creates a new software ecology, and brings Apple tens of billions of dollars in revenue every year.

In 2010, Apple launched the iPad tablet, leading the era and becoming the best alternative to PC.

On October 5, 2011, Jobs finished his life with his legend and glory. He overcame numerous difficulties, but finally, like everyone else, failed to escape the call of death.

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